For the history of Bronze Age Tarim mummies 青銅時代出土干屍 (dated ~1800 BC), see below Tarim Basin Archaeology post.
Summary of History 歷史摘要:
Before Xinjiang was turkified and islamized, the early settlers were Indo-Europeans (印歐人). In 2nd century BC, this region became part of the Xiongnu empire (匈奴). In 60 BC, the Han dynasty (漢朝) established the Protectorate (都護府). In early centuries, many Buddhist oasis city-states (西域三十六國) were present around Tarim Basin (塔里木盆地). In 4th century, the Dzungaria (準噶爾) was occupied by the Rouran Khaganate (柔然汗國). In late 5th century, the Hephthalites (嚈噠,白匈人 White Huns based in Afghanistan) occupied most of Tarim Basin.
In 6th century, the Turkic Khaganate (突厥汗國) was established. In 7th century, the Tang dynasty (唐朝) defeated the Turks and established the Protectorates. It continued the expansion as far west as Uzbekistan, Afghanistan and Iran. The military expedition included 10,000 horsemen supplied by the Uyghurs (回紇) who later established Uyghur Khaganate (回鶻汗國). In 840 the Khaganate was overthrown and migrated west to create the Kingdom of Qocho Uyghurs (高昌回鶻).
Kara-Khanid Khanate (喀喇汗國) rose in Central Asia. In 934 its sultan converted to Islam (伊斯蘭教) and then captured Kashgar (喀什), and began to engage in military conquests and islamization of Xinjiang. The Buddhist Kingdom of Khotan (和田) was conquered around 1006. In the 1390s, the Chagatai (察合台) ruler attacked the Kingdom of Qocho which remained mainly Buddhist until 15th century. In 1755 Qing dynasty (清朝) attacked Dzungar Khanate (準噶爾汗國) and exterminated the Buddhist Mongol Dzungars as a people.
The ethnonym "Uyghur" (維吾爾族名) became extinct after the islamization of Xinjiang. It was revived in the 20th century by the Soviets and later was applied to the sedentary muslims living in oases around the Tarim Basin and east Xinjiang. Many scholars do not consider the modern Uyghurs to be of direct linear descent from the old Uyghur Khaganate of Mongolia. Rather, they consider them to be descendants of a number of peoples, including the ancient Uyghurs (回鶻).
For more detailed history 更詳細歷史, please read after the maps.
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More detailed history 更詳細歷史:
Before Xinjiang was turkified and islamized (在突厥化,伊斯蘭化之前), the early settlers in this region were Indo-Europeans (印歐人). They were identified as Tocharians (吐火羅人) and Sakas (塞種) and practiced Buddhism (佛教). In the 2nd century BC, this region became part of the Xiongnu empire (匈奴 Hunnu) which was originally dominant on Mongolian Plateau (蒙古高原). Above 1st map shows East Asia in 2nd century BC and later dominant Khaganates. During a long Han-Xiongnu war, in 60 BC the Han dynasty (漢朝) established the Protectorate of the Western Regions (西域都護府) to oversee the Tarim Basin (塔里木盆地, South Xinjiang 南疆) as far west as the Pamir (帕米爾), maintaining a variable military presence until the early 3rd century. Above 3rd map shows expansion of Han dynasty. Xiongnu and Wusun (烏孫) still dominated the Dzungaria (準噶爾, North Xinjiang 北疆).
In the early centuries, Buddhist oasis city-states such as Khotan, Shule, Kucha, Loulan and Gaochang (于闐、疏勒、龜茲、樓蘭、高昌) were present around the Tarim Basin (see Above 2nd map and map in next post). In the 4th century, the Dzungaria was occupied by the Rouran Khaganate (柔然汗國 330-555) and the city-states paid tribute to the Rourans. In the late 5th century, the Hephthalites (嚈噠, White Huns 白匈人 based in Bactria in present-day Afghanistan, 大夏,今阿富汗) expanded eastward through the Pamir Mountains and occupied western Tarim Basin as far as Turpan (吐魯番), and parts of Dzungaria.
In the 6th century, the Turkic Khaganate (突厥汗國) was established on Mongolian Plateau and expanded westward. In 581, it separated into Eastern and Western Turkic Khaganates (東、西突厥汗國) and in 630, Eastern Turks were defeated by the Tang dynasty (唐朝). In 640, Tang annexed Gaochang and established Anxi Protectorate (安西都護府) there and later to and fro Kucha, to control the Tarim Basin. Meanwhile the Four Garrisons of Anxi (安西四鎮) were created at the city-states of Qiuci (Kucha), Yutian (Hotan), Shule (Kashgar) and Yanqi (焉耆 Karashahr). In 657, Western Turks were defeated under the Emperor Gaozong (高宗) and Anxi Grand Protectorate (安西大都護府) was established in 658 at Kucha, and subsequent reginal Protectorates (都督府) to govern as far west as over Samarkand and Bukhara (Uzbekistan 撒馬爾罕、布哈拉), Kabul and Herat (Afghanistan 喀布爾、赫拉特), and Zaranj (Afghanistan 扎蘭季) near Iran (see above 4th map). The military expedition included 10,000 horsemen supplied by the Uyghurs (回紇 Huihe).
After Gaozong's stroke in 660, his wife Wu Zetian (武則天) became the de facto ruler (China's only female Emperor in 690-705). In 662, Tang hegemony beyond the Pamir Mountains ended with revolts by the Turks. In 663, the parts of southern Xinjiang controlled by the Tuyuhun Kingdom (吐谷渾) established by nomadic Xianbei (鮮卑) was conquered by the Tibetans. The Tibetan Empire repeatedly invaded the Tarim Basin and neighboring, and the ownership of Four Garrisons of Anxi changed hand often. In 679, Suyab (Kyrgyzstan 碎葉) replaced Yanqi in the Four Garrisons of Anxi. In 693, Tang regained control of southern Xinjiang and retained it for the next 50 years. In 702, Wu Zetian set up the Beiting Protectorate (北庭都護府) at Ting Prefecture to control the region north of Gaochang. In 790, the Uyghurs and Tang forces were defeated by the Tibetans at Ting Prefecture, ending nearly 150 years of Tang influence in Central Asia. Its policies of using larege number of Turkic soldiers unintentionally sped the turkification (突厥化) of Xinjiang.
In 744, Uyghur Khaganate (回鶻汗國) was established after the defeat of the Second Turkic Khaganate on Mongolian Plateau. During its golden age, Uyghurs exchanged princesses in marriage with Tang and in 788 requested to change its Chinese name to Huihu (回鶻). In 840, the Uyghur Khaganate was overthrown by Yenisei Kyrgyz (葉尼塞吉爾吉斯人/黠戛斯人). Part of Uyghurs migrated west and created the Kingdom of Qocho Uyghurs (高昌回鶻) near modern Turpan in 843, with strong Buddhist and Tocharian influences. The occupation included Karasahr (焉耆 Yanqi), Kucha (龜茲 Kuqa), Tingzhou (庭州,北庭 Beshbalik), Xizhou (西州, 高昌 Gaochang) and Yizhou (伊州, 哈密 Hami) etc. Kara-Khanid Khanate (喀喇汗國,黑汗王朝 840–1212, see above 5th map) rose in Central Asia from a confederation of Turkic tribes made up mainly of the Karluks (葛邏祿), Chigils (處月) and Yaghmas (樣磨). In 934, its Sultan converted to Islam (伊斯蘭教) and then captured Kashgar (喀什), and began to engage in military conquests and islamization (伊斯蘭化) of other parts of Xinjiang. The Buddhist Kingdom of Khotan (和田) was conquered around 1006.
In the 1390s, the Chagatai (察合台) ruler attacked the Kingdom of Qocho which remained mainly Buddhist until 15th century, with Hami being the last one to convert. The conversion of the Uyghurs to Islam was not completed until the 17th century. In 1755 Qing dynasty (清朝) attacked Dzungar Khanate (準噶爾汗國 1635–1757) and exterminated the Buddhist Mongol Dzungars as a people. Qing settled Han, Hui, Manchu, Xibe (漢、回、滿、錫伯) and Taranchi (塔蘭奇 means Farmer in Chagatai, from Tarim Basin) into depopulated Dzungaria, which was also subjected to mass Kazakh (哈薩克) settlement. In 19th century many Kazakhs (called Kirghiz by Russian 俄羅斯) were driven from their traditional land into Xinjiang and in 1916 Xinjiang became a sanctuary for fleeing Kazakhs escaping the Russian conscription.
The ethnonym "Uyghur" (族名) became extinct after the islamization of Xinjiang and it was revived in the 20th century by the Soviets and later was applied to the sedentary muslims living in oases around the Tarim Basin (including Taranchis) and east Xinjiang: 清代指新疆天山以南地區為「回部」(Altishahr 回疆), 與天山北路的準部相對，並稱「南回北準」。 Before, Russian used "Sart" (Sarts 撒爾塔人 urban dwellers and Taranchis farmers), Western travelers used "Turki", Chinese used "Chantou" (纏頭 Turbaned head) to call the Uyghurs who identified themselves with the oasis they came from. Many scholars do not consider the modern Uyghurs (維吾爾) to be of direct linear descent from the old Uyghur Khaganate of Mongolia. Rather, they consider them to be descendants of a number of peoples, one of them the ancient Uyghurs (回鶻).